Journal of Literary Criticism and Rhetoric

Abstract The “Lion & Nakhjiran”story of Mathnavi is one of the most sophisticated stories of the book, with unique features providing amazing capacity for successive readings. Roland Barthes' opinions on the theory of semiotics create a systematic and innovative theoretical framework that can easily cope with the complexities and implications of literary texts. Applying his opinions as a model, it has been tried in the present research, to study the narratology of one of the longest stories of Mathnavi, the “Lion & Nakhjiran", to show how much the narrative of this story can produce different meanings. Attempts have been also made to determine the possibility of using semiotics theory in analyzing a classic and entirely native text of Persian literature, along with the study of the specific features of Mowlavi's language in this narrative. The results show that: 1) the “Lion & Nakhjiran" narrative is not merely a read-only text, but with regard to the data obtained from semiotics theory application, it has a very good capacity to become a read-only work. 2) the most important factors make this narrative to be an open and pluralistic text are the special manners have been used by the poet as well as the absolute  allegorical nature of narrative itself.

Abstract Controversial games and tricks in the field of language of postmodern sonnet is what has been examined in present study. We have tried, avoiding prejudice, to study the course of language and its games that goes sometimes to the border of waggery and dysphasia. The noticeable point is that the poet confronts language differently in the postmodern way of thinking, and the researcher faces the overcoming of language and form on meaning and content, respectively. In this view,"language" does not serve meaning definitely, but language and aesthetics can be the ultimate goal of the author, what does not coincide with the aesthetic criteria of traditional scholars. But the most important question about the pathology of postmodern sonnet becomes: "How justified is the abnormality or norm-confronting of postmodern poets and their departure from language rules?" It has been tried, in present research, to study the common language games in Iran's postmodern sonnets to find the answer of above mentioned question.

Abstract The "inner-text reader" is a critical approach of literature that forms on the basis of reader-centered theory. Using it in the text to make the relation between the writer and the reader possible, Wolfgang Iser and Aidan Chambers have tried to decode the author's second self in open texts; because an expert author utilizes some techniques in his/her text, and the relativist reader receives a reward at each reading, discovering the technique as a winning sheet to relate the author. The story of Sheikh Sana'an is one of the classical works of Persian literature that is full of these techniques. The author's relationship, from this point of view, and creative readings of the contemporary reader provide a new face of Iranian-Islamic literature to the world. Based on the components of inner-text reader and on the basis of the principles of narratology, it has been tried, in present paper, to find signs of this approach in the story of Sheikh Sana'an. Through the study of the approaches and adapting them with the story of Sheikh Sana'an, it has been shown that decoding the inner-text reader in this story is highly possible. The power of love, the variety of vocabulary, the type of narration is used, problem solving, problem making and transcendental actions have created an interconnected relation between the author and the particular reader to penetrate the "deepen structure of the story."

Abstract In mystical thought, in addition to high position of "love" as a place for famous characters, there is a "beloved" position which is considered as a place for hidden and mystic characters. Examining the theories of the great Sufis from the beginning up to the end of the 7th century AD, it can be claimed that there is such a viewpoint about different steps of love in the works by Ahmad al-Ghazali, 'Ain al-Quzat Hamedani, Roozbehan Baghi Shirazi, Shams Tabrizi and Sultan Walad, derived from the phrase "یُحِبُّهم" (He loves them), a Quranic term that has repeated in a hadith from the Holy Prophet (pbuh).  In comparison with the position of "lover", "beloved" places in a very higher position in transcendental mystical thought. At the level of love for God, the wayfarer comes to a place in which the position of lover and beloved changes, and this will be the time God loves the creature, and he stands on the position of beloved one. Anyone who wants to achieve such a position should meet someone who has already reached the position of beloved. According to Sultan Walad, Shams Tabrizi is one of those who has already reached the position of beloved, and Mowlana is also attained this position after meeting him. By studying Mowlavi's life as an example, and adapting the procedure he passed to get the "beloved position" to what was introduced by Jung as individuation process (exploring the shadow, emerging of anima, personification of the wise), it can be concluded that these two processes are adaptable, and Shams Tabrizi, as a wise man, has brought about the evolution of Mowlavi's personality and his rebirth.

Abstract On the basis of power schemas, it has been tried, in present study, to explain the principles of   Hafez's cognition. So, from a cognitive linguistic point of view, we want to show that metaphor is not a simply linguistic tool, but a definitely cognitive tool that embellishes the speech. The theoretical framework of this study is based on the term "image schema" that has been explained by Mark Johnson. After a little deliberation on the direction of cognitive linguistics, we have stopped, in this study, on metaphor, and then, power schemas of Hafez's poetry have been reported through introduction of image schemas and their lateral discussions. The results show that the power metaphors Hafez used in his poems reflect his cognitive system and reinforce the foundation of his experiences. Undoubtedly, in the field of power metaphors, one can examine the clusters have come out of the main body through the discovery of metaphorical mappings Hafez has used in his poems, and it can also been realized that the power of his metaphors are functions of a limited number of mappings which stem from the unity of Hafez's attitude about and his stable actions with the cultural and physical environment.

Abstract As one of the most prominent and committed poets and writers of the Islamic Revolution, Seyed Hasan Hosseini, has paid attention to satire in three of his works. Through a descriptive-analytical method, the present study is dedicated to analyze the types, the techniques and the themes of satire have been used in these works: "Boradeh-ha"(the swarfs), "Nooshdarouye Tarhe Generic" (The panacea of generic plot) and "Festivale Khanjar" (the Dagger Festival). Hosseini has used, in above-mentioned works, aphorism, classic poetry format, Nimaei (Nimaic) poetry and white (Shamloi) poetry. Regarding that satirical tales are generally classified into three categories of "dramatic", "narrative" and "poetic", it can also be claimed that the satires used in these works are mostly dramatic using the techniques of exaggeration and sarcasm, especially poetic satires using the techniques of simile and metaphor. In addition, the most frequent theme of his satires has been the cultural critiques in the field of art as well as social critiques in the field of economy.

Abstract Different theories in various literary or non-literary fields, including psychology, have led to multidimensional relationships between different sciences; such as interdisciplinary studies between literature and psychology. This relation has made literature a platform for up-to-date attitudes and analysis and different readings. The use of psychological theories has created a context in which literature becomes more tangible, more objective, and more practical, and its attractiveness is manifested in literary, and especially mystical texts. Sigmund Freud's theory of psychic structure and Carl Gustav Jung's Individuation process are both among these type of theories. Based on Freud and Jung's theories, it has been tried, in present study, to explore and analyze the instructional aspects of dreaming through the tale of "the prince who got the real kingdom" in mathnavi's fourth volume. The results show that "dream" is the highway through which achieving the man's unconsciousness would be possible. Mowlavi teaches the audience, in this tale, that a balance in personality is essential to get equilibrium and to reach individuation, one should be able to create integrated interaction in all dimensions of his psychic personality.

Abstract Semantics examines, analyzes, interprets and understands the signs of the text systematically. Coding is one of the basic features of mystical narratives. It has been tried, in present study, to decode and interpret narratives, to realize the text and to understand its narrative functions, referring the semiotics of narrative elements in three authentic and influential works of Persian literature:  Kashf-ul-Mahjoob, Resalat al- Qusheyriyyeh and Tazkirat al-Awliyā. One of the most effective approaches to semiotics, which is consistent with the horizons of mystical narratives, is the approach used by Charles Sanders Peirce. Through his approach, considering its focus on interpretation and its emphasis on referential functionality of the signs, the narrative elements have been examined in mystical stories of three mentioned works. These elements include characters, contrast and opposition, impulse and association, point of view, and timing arrangement. The most important feature of narrative signs is their coherence with contrast and opposition, something that can be attributed to an experience of the Holy Affairs. This coherence is also a way through which the confrontation to formal and apparent thoughts happens to show that this type of religious experience and mystical conduct is what makes mental development and spiritual transformation possible. Accordingly, anti-narrative disclosure and negative elements and characters have been explained in the structure of narratives.

Abstract Most of the previous studies in Iran have examined the deviation in poetry using the model proposed by Leech, so little attention has been paid to discourse deviation; whereas, if linguistics is limited just to the study of phonological, syntactic and semantic aspects of language, its contribution to literary studies will be very restricted. For this reason, using the model proposed by Mick Short upon which discourseal deviation has been firstly applied, it has been tried, in present study, to examine linguistic innovations in poetry. The scope of the study includes the works produced by new generation of modern Iranian classical poets. The study has been conducted to determine what types of discourse deviation prevail in today's classical poetry, and how much is the rhetorical value of each. The results show that eight types of innovation (beginning in the middle, the end of the unfinished, the use of conversation repairing strategy, code-switching, style-switching, expansion of semantic unit of poetry, cataphoric relation and the use of single words instead of making sentence) are prevalent in discursive level in modern classical poetry, some of which are firstly introduced in this study.

Abstract Naming research (or the research on the title) reviews the name of a written or composed work, although not much attention has been paid to it in Iran, it has a special place among western and Arab scholars and many studies have being done about it or based on it. In such researches, the meaning of the name, the message it holds, and its link with the text and subject are examined in order to open a way through the text. Adopting such an approach, it has been tried in present study, to examine critically the name of highly esteemed work of Rūzbihān Baqli Shirazi, 'Abhar al-'Ashiqin. The fundamental questions were: "What is the meaning and the message of the name?" and "How does it link with the text and the subject of the book?" After introducing hermeneutically the name research, the bright, the dark and the grey types of name, and especially semantic analysis of the word "'Abhar", some hypothesis have been proposed and reported in order to find the answer of these questions; as if, on the basis of a literary and metaphorical foundation, Rūzbihān assumes his own book as a full-of beautiful-flowers garden, through which the reader can enjoy the color and fragrance of its flowers. It means that the content and the subjects help him/her to get more familiar with love and its consequences, because the author has presented them as a gift (a bouquet of lilies, lotuses and narcissuses) to the readers.

Abstract Seir ul-'Ibad Ila al-Ma'ad is the first verse Miraj Nameh of Persian literature, the story of Sanai's spiritual inability in material world and his traveling passion for returning to the world of meaning. Sanai begins his existential upgrade procedure from being an animal or concrete up to the level of general intellect and then returns to his elemental body. The study of heroic structure of Joseph Campbell led to the development of a theory started with the term "monomyth", based on permanent ontology of a hero with a constant metamorphosis. Christopher Vogler proposed in his work "The Writer's Journey" another form of the theory and rewrote the heroic journey in 12 volumes and 7 archetypes. Through a descriptive-analytical method, the stages of hero's journey have been surveyed in Seir ul-'Ibad Ila al-Ma'ad, in present study, on the basis of Vogler's pattern. The results show that the overall structure of Sanai's journey is adaptable to the pattern of "The Writer's Journey", although there are some incompatibilities in some stages that are sometimes the result of differences in the definition of hero concept in two systems of mysticism and myth, and sometimes indicate the weakness of fictional techniques of Seir ul-'Ibad Ila al-Ma'ad.

Abstract Archetypal criticism is a new method by which literary texts are analyzed. Carl Gustav Jung has made this approach of criticism more coherent through suggesting and describing two concepts of Collective Unconscious and Archetype. The archetypes are the common heritage of human civilization that are accumulated in the collective unconscious. Anima, as the most important archetype, is the unconscious feminine side of a man's soul. This archetype is manifested as beloved characters in many works of Persian literature, such as the epic Vis and Rāmin. Hence, through a descriptive-analytical method, the most important manifestations of anima in the form of the character of Vis, the beloved woman of Rāmin have been analyzed in present study. The results show that Vis and Rāmin's love came at a glance. As a bipolar character, Vis sometimes makes Rāmin's life bitter and distressed with coquetry and ignoring, and sometimes, she makes her lover prosperous by approaching him and fulfilling his wishes with love-making... some issues about anima have been also pointed out by Jung.

Abstract From a long time ago, man has been concerned about the quality of his confrontation to the nature, and justification of world ending. So, he has been always trying to explain, through his ontological beliefs, the universe and the way it is created. One of these mythological beliefs is Zurvānism. It should be said that Zurvānism has not been a transient and variable issue in the history of Mazdyasna, but one of the early principles of the Zoroastrianism. Some scholars have considered Zurvān as absolute place (thwash), and someone as limitless time, and sometimes they have considered it as the concept of (fate) and destiny. The necessity of examining this issue lies in the importance of understanding the longstanding points and beliefs that reveal the meanings and mysteries of Shahnameh and explain some of the complexities of this literary masterpiece; because Ferdowsi has made combined the miraculous phenomena of myth and heroism, whose existence is essential in epic, and has tried to join myth and epic. The question is: "Can one compare the manifestation of "Zurvān" in Ferdowsi's Shahnameh with the existence of Zāl?", and also: "Symbolically, what/who are Zurvān's natural elements and helpers in Shahnameh?" The reflection of Zurvāni theories on existence, the birth and the marriage of Zāl, the victory of Rustam on Esfandiar on the one hand, and Rustam and Shaqād as the sons of Zurvān, "Hourmazd and Ahriman" on the other hand are quite obvious in present study.

Abstract Many Persian classical historiographers try, directly or indirectly, to show their objectivism and impartiality to the audiences. Among them, the "author/narrator" of Saljuqnama does not clearly claim such a statement within the text, despite years of service at the court of the Seljuk kings and being the teacher of two of them. But referring to the textual signs, one can find some forms of his indirect struggles to reflect his narrative accurately, and precisely, with no political positioning, in order to create or promote the facts in a special way while attracting the audience's trust. Various types of discourse, and the conscious or unconscious interferences made by the "author/narrator" of Saljuqnama to concoct the reality or historical realities of Seljuk dynasty are categorized and analyzed, in present study, based on the distinction between two terms of "story" and "discourse", and also on the basis of the types of discourse in the formulation of Zheplint Volts. The results show that the "author/narrator"  has propelled or fixed,  either deliberately or not, levels of reality for or against somebodies in a variety of discursive forms such as: modal, explanatory, abstract, emotional and appraisal, and the consequence has been  legitimizing certain events and individuals or vice versa.